Amadolari y'Amerika

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Amadorali

Amadolari ya Amerika ( Afite ikimenyetso cya $ n'ikimenyetso cya USD, cyangwa US $ kugirango ayitandukanye n’andi mafranga y’amadolari; yitwa amadolari, amadolari y’Amerika, cyangwa amafaranga y’amadolari ) ni ifaranga ryemewe muri leta zunze Ubumwe z'Amerika n'ibindi bihugu byinshi. Itegeko ry’ibiceri ryo muri 1792 ryinjije amadorari y’Amerika ugereranije n’idolari rya feza rya Esipanye, ayigabanyamo igiceri 100, kandi yemerera gucukura ibiceri bivugwa mu madorari n’amafaranga. Inoti zo muri Amerika zitangwa muburyo bwi Notes, zizwi cyane ku cyatsi kibisi bitewe ahanini n’ibara ryatsi.

Politiki y’ifaranga muri Amerika ikorwa na Federal Reserve System, ikora nka banki nkuru y’igihugu.

Amadolari y'Abanyamerika yabanje gusobanurwa muburyo bwa bimetalike ingano na garama 24.057 ikaba ari ifeza nziza cyangwa, kuva 1837, yari garama 1.505 ya zahabu nziza, cyangwa amadorali 20.67 kuri troy imwe . Itegeko rya Gold Standard ryo muri 1900 ryahujije amadorari na zahabu gusa. Kuva muri 1934, ihwanye na zahabu ryavuguruwe kugeza kuri madorali 35 kuri troy imwe . Kuva muri 1971, isano yose ya zahabu yavuyeho. [1]

Kugeza ku ya 10 Gashyantare 2021, ifaranga ryakwirakwijwe hirya no hino ryageze kuri madorali y'Amerika 2.10, naho triyoni y'amadorali y'Amerika 2.05 yari muri Notes ya Banki nkuru y’igihugu ( biliyoni z'amadorali y'Amerika 50 zisigaye zari mu biceri hamwe na Noteri zo muri Amerika zishaje). [2]

Incamake[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Mu Itegeko Nshinga[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Ingingo ya I, Igice 8 y'Itegeko Nshinga rya Amerika riteganya ko Kongere ifite imbaraga " amafaranga y'ibiceri ." [3] Amategeko ashyira mu bikorwa ubwo bubasha muri iki gihe yanditswe mu mutwe wa 31 w'igitabo cya Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika, hakurikijwe ingingo ya 5112, igena impapuro zigomba gutangwaho amadorari y'Amerika. Ibi biceri byombi byagenwe mu gice nk 'isoko ryemewe mu kwishyura imyenda. [4] Amadolari ya Sacagaweyya ni urugero rumwe rw'amadolari y'umuringa, bitandukanye na Silive y'Abanyamerika ari ifeza nziza. Igice cya 5112 giteganya kandi gucukura no gutanga ibindi biceri, bifite agaciro kuva ku ijana kugeza ku madolari 100. [4] Ibindi biceri bisobanuwe neza mubiceri byamadorari y'Amerika .

[5] Ingigo ya I, Agace ka 9 y’Itegeko Nshinga iteganya ko Itangazo risanzwe na Konti y’ibyinjira n’amafaranga yose ya Leta bizajya bitangazwa buri gihe, Umubare w'amafaranga avugwa mu"Amatangazo" kuri ubu agaragara mu madorari y'Abanyamerika, bityo amadolari y'Abanyamerika ashobora kuvugwa nk'igice cya konti ya Amerika. [6] "Amadolari" ni rimwe mu magambo ya mbere yo mu gice cya 9, aho iryo jambo ryerekeza ku madorari ya Esipanye, cyangwa igiceri gifite agaciro ka munani ka Esipanye .

Itegeko ry'ibiceri[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Muri 1792, Kongere y’Amerika yemeje itegeko ry’ibiceri, muri ryo Igice cya 9 cyemerera gukora ibiceri bitandukanye, harimo: [7]: 248 gice cya 20 cy'iryo tegeko cyerekana amadorari y'Amerika nk'igice cy'ifaranga rya Amerika: [7]: 250–1 

Ibice icumi[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Bitandukanye n’idolari rya Esipanye ryasya, Kongere y’umugabane n’Itegeko ry’ibiceri byateganije na sisitemu icumi y’ibice bigendana n’idolari rimwe, ku buryo bukurikira: [8] [9] urusyo, cyangwa igihumbi cy’idolari; ijana, cyangwa ijana ku ijana by'idolari; igiceri, cyangwa kimwe cya cumi cy'idolari; kagoma, cyangwa amadorari icumi. Akamaro k'ibi bice:

  • Gusa ijanisha (¢) rikoreshwa nkigabana rya buri munsi ryamadorari.
  • Igiceri gikoreshwa gusa nk'izina ry'igiceri gifite agaciro k'amafaranga 10.
  • Urusyo (₥) ntiruramenyekana, ariko mbere yikinyejana cya 20 rwagati rwakoreshwaga mu bijyanye n’imisoro ku byaguzwe, ndetse n’ibiciro bya lisansi, ubusanzwe bikaba mu buryo bwa madorali ΧΧ.ΧΧ9 kuri gallon (urugero, $ 3.599, ubusanzwe byanditswe nka $  ). [10] [11]
  • Inkukuma nayo ntizwi na rubanda rusanzwe. [11] Iri jambo ryakoreshejwe mu itegeko ry’ibiceri ryo muri 1792 mu kwerekana amadorari icumi, hanyuma rikoreshwa mu kwita ibiceri bya zahabu.

Esipanye peso cyangwa idorari byagabanijwe mu mateka umunani - bityo ibice umunani. Abanyamerika nabo bize kubara mubice bitari icumi bya  cente mbere yo muri 1857 mugihe bits yo muri Mexike yakunze gukura kuruta amafaranga yabanyamerika; mu byukuri iyi myitozo yarokotse muri New York Stock Exchange yaguzwe kugeza muri 2001. [12] [13]

Muri 1854, umunyamabanga wa Leta, James Guthrie, yasabye ko hashyirwaho ibiceri by' amadorali y'Amerika 100 bya 100, 50, na 25, byitwa ubumwe, igice cy’ubumwe, n’ubumwe bw’igihembwe, [14] bityo bivuze ko ari ihuriro ry’Ubumwe = n'amadorali y'Amerika100 . Ariko, nta biceri nk'ibi byigeze bigurishwa, kandi ibishushanyo mbonera by'amadorari 50 birahari.

Iyo muri iki gihe gitanzwe muburyo bwo kuzenguruka, amafaranga atarenze cyangwa angana n’idolari asohoka nkibiceri by’Amerika, mu gihe amadosiye arenze cyangwa angana n’idolari asohoka nka Notes ya Banki nkuru y’igihugu, yirengagije izo manza zidasanzwe:

  • Ibiceri bya zahabu byatanzwe kugirango bizenguruke kugeza muri 1930, kugeza ku gaciro k'idorali ya America 20 (bizwi nka kagoma ebyiri )
  • Ibiceri bya Bullion cyangwa kwibuka, ifeza, platine, na palladium ibiceri bifite agaciro kangana n'amadorari 100 nk'isoko ryemewe n'amategeko (nubwo rifite agaciro karenze nka bullion ).
  • Ikibazo cy'ifaranga ry'intambara y'abanyagihugu mu madorari ari munsi ya amadorali 1, ni ukuvuga ifaranga rito, rimwe na rimwe ryitwa shinplasters .

Etymology[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Mu kinyejana cya 16, Count Hieronymus Schlick wo muri Bohemia yatangiye gucapa ibiceri bizwi ku izina rya joachimstalers, byitiriwe Joachimstal, n'ikibaya cyacukurwamo ifeza., izina ry'ikibaya ryitiriwe Mutagatifu Joachim, aho thal cyangwa tal, bihuza ijambo ry'icyongereza dale, ni Ikidage cyitwa 'ikibaya.' [15] Joachimstaler yaje kugabanywa kugeza ku kidage cyo mu kidage, ijambo ryaje kubona inzira mu ndimi nyinshi, harimo: [15] tolari ( Ceki, Slowakiya na Siloveniya ); daleri ( Danemarike na Suwede ); ( Noruveje ); ( Ikidage ); talari ( Umunyetiyopiya ); muremure ( Hongiriya ); tallero ( Umutaliyani );( Icyarabu ); n'amadorari ( Icyongereza ).

Nubwo Abadage babaye abapayiniya muri New York ya none mu kinyejana cyo muri 17 gukoresha no kubara amafaranga mu madorari y’ifeza mu buryo bwa reichsthalers yo mu Budage n’Ubuholandi hamwe na leeuwendaalders yo mu Buholandi (amadolari y’intare), ni yo muri Esipanye y'Abanyamerika umunani hose. -igiceri nyacyo cyamenyekanye gusa nk'idolari kuva mu kinyejana cya 18. [16]

Amazina[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Imvugo (S) yo kuvuga (cyane nka cid yo mu Bwongereza kuri ipawundi ni siterlingi ) ikoreshwa kenshi yerekeza ku madorari y'ibihugu bitandukanye, harimo n'amadorari y'Amerika. Iri jambo, ryatangiye mu kinyejana cya 18, rishobora kuba ryarakomotse ku bucuruzi bw’uruhu rwabakoloni, cyangwa rishobora no guturuka ku ijambo rya pokeri .

Green back ni irindi zina, ryabanje gukoreshwa cyane cyane ku cyifuzo cyo gusaba mu kinyejana cya 19, cyacapishijwe umukara n'icyatsi inyuma, cyakozwe na Abraham Lincoln mu gutera inkunga Amajyaruguru mu ntambara y'abenegihugu . [17] Iracyakoreshwa mu kwerekana amadorari y'Amerika (ariko ntabwo ikoreshwa ku madorari y'ibindi bihugu). Ijambo green back rikoreshwa kandi n’itangazamakuru ry’imari mu bindi bihugu, nka Ositaraliya, [18] Nouvelle-Zélande, [19] Afurika y'Epfo, n'Ubuhinde . [20]

Amazina yihariye yihariye:

  • Igiceri cy'amadolari y'igihembwe kizwi nka bits ebyiri, guhemukira inkomoko y'idolari "igice cya munani". [12]
  • Inyemezabuguzi y'idorali ya America 1 yitiriwe buck cyangwa ingaragu .
  • Inyemezabuguzi ikoreshwa y'idorali ya America 2 idakunze kwitwa deuce, Tom, cyangwa Jefferson (nyuma ya Thomas Jefferson ).
  • Amadolari y'idorali ya America 5 rimwe na rimwe yitwa Lincoln, fin, fiver, cyangwa imyanya itanu .
  • Umushinga w'amadolari 10 rimwe na rimwe witwa sawbuck, ahantu icumi, cyangwa Hamilton (nyuma ya Alexander Hamilton).
  • Umushinga w'amadolari 20 rimwe na rimwe witwa kabiri, Jackson (nyuma ya Andrew Jackson ), cyangwa kagoma ebyiri .
  • Umushinga w'amadolari 50 rimwe na rimwe witwa yardstick, cyangwa inkunga, nyuma ya Perezida Ulysses S. Grant .
  • Umushinga w'amadolari 100 witwa Benjamin, Benji, Ben, cyangwa Franklin, bivuga ku ishusho ya Benjamin Franklin . Andi mazina arimo C-inoti (C kuba umubare wabaroma kuri 100), inoti yikinyejana, cyangwa fagitire (urugero fagitire ebyiri = y'idorali ya America 200).
  • Umubare cyangwa kugwiza y'idorali ya America 1.000 rimwe na rimwe byitwa grand mu mvugo mvugo, mu magambo ahinnye yanditse kuri G, K, cyangwa k (kuva ku kilo; urugero ry'amadorali 10k = y'idorali ya America 10,000). Mu buryo nk'ubwo, binini cyangwa igipande gishobora kandi kwerekeza ku y'idorali ya America 1.000 (urugero: "mirongo itanu nini" = y'idorali ya America 50.000).

Ikimenyetso cy'idolari[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Espanye ifeza umunani-nyayo cyangwa peso yo muri 1768

Ikimenyetso $, mubisanzwe cyanditswe mbere yu mubare, gikoreshwa ku madolari ya Amerika (kimwe nandi mafaranga menshi). iki kimenyetso cyari igisubizo cy'ubwihindurize bwikinyejana cya 18 cyubwihindurize bwanditse bwanditse kuri peso, izina risanzwe ryamadorari ya Esipanye ryakwirakwijwe cyane mu Isi Nshya kuva mu kinyejana cya 16 kugeza mu cya 19. P na s amaherezo yaje kwandikirwa hejuru atanga $ . [21] [22]

Ikindi gisobanuro kizwi cyane ni uko gikomoka ku Nkingi za Hercules kuri Ikoti rya Esipanye y'idolari rya Esipanye . Izi Nkingi za Hercules ku biceri by'amadolari ya Espanye ifata ifaranga y'utubari tubiri duhagaritse ( || ) hamwe n'igitambara kizunguruka mu buryo bwa S. 

Amateka[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Alexander Hamilton yagaragaje ibisobanuro birambuye ku itegeko ry’ibiceri ryo muri 1792 n’ishyirwaho rya Reta ya Amerika.

Inyandiko za Banki nkuru yigihugu, ikinyejana cya 20 kugeza ubu[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

 

Kugaragara nkifaranga ryabigenewe[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

John Maynard Keynes (iburyo) na Harry Dexter White mu nama yo gutangiza ikigega mpuzamahanga cy'imari muri 1946. Bagize uruhare runini mu gutegura ibiteganijwe muri gahunda y’imari nyuma y’intambara ku isi.
Itorero Imbere Subiza inyuma Igishushanyo Guhindura motif Urukurikirane rwa mbere Urukurikirane ruheruka Kuzenguruka
Ifaranga rimwe George Washington Ikirango gikomeye cya Amerika Urukurikirane 1963 [lower-alpha 2]



Urukurikirane 1935 [lower-alpha 3] 		Urukurikirane rwa 2017A [23] Mugari
Amadolari abiri Thomas Jefferson Itangazo ryubwigenge na John Trumbull Urukurikirane 1976 Urukurikirane 2017A Ntarengwa
Amadolari atanu Abraham Lincoln Urwibutso rwa Lincoln Urukurikirane 2006 Urukurikirane 2017A Mugari
Amadorari icumi Alexander Hamilton Kubaka Ikigega Urukurikirane 2004A Urukurikirane 2017A Mugari
Amadolari makumyabiri Andereya Jackson White House Urukurikirane 2004 Urukurikirane 2017A Mugari
Amadorari mirongo itanu Ulysses S. Impano Amerika Capitol Urukurikirane 2004 Urukurikirane 2017A Mugari
Amadorari ijana Benjamin Franklin Inzu y'Ubwigenge Urukurikirane rwa 2009A [24] Urukurikirane 2017A Mugari

Itegeko Nshinga rya Amerika riteganya ko Congere ifite ububasha bwo "kuguza amafaranga ku nguzanyo z’Amerika." [25] Congere yakoresheje ubwo bubasha yemerera Banki nkuru y’imari ya Leta gutanga Inyandiko za Banki nkuru y’igihugu . Izo nyandiko "ni inshingano za Leta zunze ubumwe z’Amerika" kandi "zizacungurwa mu buryo bwemewe n'amategeko bisabwe mu ishami ry’imari ya Leta zunze ubumwe z’Amerika, mu mujyi wa Washington, Akarere ka Columbiya, cyangwa muri banki iyo ari yo yose". [26] Inyandiko za Banki nkuru y’igihugu zashyizweho n’amategeko nk'isoko ryemewe " ryo kwishyura imyenda. [27] Congere yemereye kandi gutanga andi moko arenga 10 y’inoti, harimo inoti ya Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika [28] hamwe n’inoti ya Banki nkuru y’igihugu . Icyitonderwa cya Federal Reserve ni bwo bwoko bwonyine busigaye buzenguruka kuva mu myaka ya za 70 ku isi. Inyandiko za Banki nkuru y’igihugu zacapiwe na Biro ishinzwe gushushanya no gucapa kandi bikozwe mu mpapuro za fibure (bitandukanye na fibure y'imbaho ikoreshwa mu gukora impapuro rusange). Inoti nini zatanzwe mbere yo muri 1928 zapimye, mu gihe inoti ntoya watangije muri uwo mwaka w'igipimo bigezweho. [29] Ibipimo by'ifaranga rigezweho (rito-rito) by'Amerika birasa n'ubunini bw'inoti za peso mzo muri philippine, inoti zatanzwe ku buyobozi bwa Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika nyuma yo muri 1903, byagaragaye ko zatsinze cyane. Amafagitire manini y'Abanyamerika yamenyekanye nka ibiringiti by'ifarashi cyangwa ibiringiti byo ku ndogobe. [30]

Ibihugu bikoresha amadorari y'Amerika[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

 

Politiki y'ifaranga[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Icyicaro gikuru cya Federal Reserve System i Washington, muri DC

Itegeko rya Banki nkuru y’igihugu yashyizeho uburyo bwa Banki nkuru y’igihugu muri 1913 nka banki nkuru y’Amerika . Inshingano yacyo y'ibanze ni ugukora politiki y’ifaranga mu gihugu hagamijwe guteza imbere umurimo, ibiciro bihamye, hamwe n’inyungu ndende mu bukungu bw’Amerika. Ishinzwe kandi guteza imbere gahunda yimari ihamye no kugenzura ibigo byimari, no gukora inguzanyo yanyuma . [31] [32]

Iyo Banki nkuru yi gihugu iguze, itanga konti y'abaguzi (hamwe na Banki nkuru yigihugu). Aya mafranga ntabwo yimurwa mu mafaranga ayo ari yo yose - niho bigeze muri iki gihe Banki nkuru y’igihugu yashyizeho amafaranga mashya akomeye . Amabanki yu bucuruzi noneho ahitamo umubare wamafaranga yo kubitsa muri Banki nkuru yi gihugu n’amafaranga yo gufata nkifaranga ry'umubiri. Mu bwa nyuma, Banki nkuru y’igihugu ishyiraho itegeko ry’amafaranga yanditse mu ishami ry’imari ya Amerika. [33] Ishami ry’imari, naryo ryohereza ibyo byifuzo muri Biro ishinzwe gushushanya no gucapa (gucapa amadolari mashya) hamwe na Biro y’Imari (gushyira kashe ku biceri).

Gukoresha mpuzamahanga nkifaranga ryabigenewe[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Kwisi yose gukoresha amadolari ya Amerika: Kwisi yose ikoreshwa ryama amayero: 

Kuzamuka[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Kugura imbaraga z'idolari rimwe rya Amerika ugereranije na 1775 Esipagne.
 Umwaka   Bingana imbaraga zo kugura
1775  $ 1.00
1780  $ 0.59
1790  $ 0.89
1800  $ 0.64
1810  $ 0.66
1820  $ 0.69
1830  $ 0.88
1840  $ 0.94
1850  $ 1.03
1860  $ 0.97
 Umwaka   Bingana imbaraga zo kugura
1870  $ 0.62
1880  $ 0.79
1890  $ 0.89
1900  $ 0.96
1910  $ 0.85
1920  $ 0.39
1930  $ 0.47
1940  $ 0.56
1950  $ 0.33
1960  $ 0.26
 Umwaka   Bingana imbaraga zo kugura
1970  $ 0.20
1980  $ 0.10
1990  $ 0.06
2000  $ 0.05
2007  $ 0.04
2008  $ 0.04
2009  $ 0.04
2010  $ 0.035
2011  $ 0.034
2012  $ 0.03

Muri 1979, Perezida Carter yashyizeho Paul Volcker Umuyobozi wa Banki nkuru y’igihugu . Banki nkuru y’igihugu yashimangiye itangwa ry’amafaranga kandi iki gihe ifaranga ryaragabanutse cyane mu myaka ya za 1980, bityo agaciro k’idolari ry’Amerika karagabanuka. [34]

Hariho impaka zikomeje kwibazwa niba banki nkuru zigomba kwibasira ifaranga rya zero (bivuze agaciro gahoraho kumadolari ya Amerika mugihe) cyangwa ifaranga rito, rihamye (bivuze ko agaciro k’idolari gahoraho ariko gahoro, nkuko biri m'urubanza ubu). Nubwo bamwe mu bahanga mu by'ubukungu bashyigikiye politiki y’ifaranga rya zero bityo bikaba agaciro gahoraho ku madorari y’Amerika, [35] abandi bavuga ko iyo politiki igabanya ubushobozi bwa banki nkuru yo kugenzura igipimo cy’inyungu no kuzamura ubukungu igihe byaba bibaye ngombwa. [36]

Ifaranga[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

 

Igipimo cy'ivunjisha[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Igipimo cy'ivunjisha rya Amayero / amadorali

Igipimo cyivunjisha cyamateka[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Idorali rya Amerika[37]
Ifaranga 1970 1980 1985 1990 1993 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2018[38]
Amayero  —  —  —  —  — 0.9387 1.0832 1.1171 1.0578 0.8833 0.8040 0.8033 0.7960 0.7293 0.6791 0.7176 0.6739 0.7178 0.7777 0.7530 0.7520 0.9015 0.8504
Japanese yen 357.6 240.45 250.35 146.25 111.08 113.73 107.80 121.57 125.22 115.94 108.15 110.11 116.31 117.76 103.39 93.68 87.78 79.70 79.82 97.60 105.74 121.05 111.130
Pound sterling 8s 4d

=0.4167 		0.4484 0.8613 0.6207 0.6660 0.6184 0.6598 0.6946 0.6656 0.6117 0.5456 0.5493 0.5425 0.4995 0.5392 0.6385 0.4548 0.6233 0.6308 0.6393 0.6066 0.6544 0.7454
ifaranga rya basuwisi 4.12 1.68 2.46 1.39 1.48 1.50 1.69 1.69 1.62 1.40 1.24 1.15 1.29 1.23 1.12 1.08 1.03 0.93 0.93 0.90 0.92 1.00 0.98
Idorali rya Canada 1.081 1.168 1.321 1.1605 1.2902 1.4858 1.4855 1.5487 1.5704 1.4008 1.3017 1.2115 1.1340 1.0734 1.0660 1.1412 1.0298 0.9887 0.9995 1.0300 1.1043 1.2789 1.2842
iripeso rya Mexike 0.01250–0.02650 2.80 2.67 2.50 3.1237 9.553 9.459 9.337 9.663 10.793 11.290 10.894 10.906 10.928 11.143 13.498 12.623 12.427 13.154 12.758 13.302 15.837 19.911
irya ba China 2.46 1.7050 2.9366 4.7832 5.7620 8.2783 8.2784 8.2770 8.2771 8.2772 8.2768 8.1936 7.9723 7.6058 6.9477 6.8307 6.7696 6.4630 6.3093 6.1478 6.1620 6.2840 6.383
Ifaranga rya Pakistani 4.761 9.9 15.9284 21.707 28.107 51.9 51.9 63.5 60.5 57.75 57.8 59.7 60.4 60.83 67 80.45 85.75 88.6 90.7 105.477 100.661 104.763 139.850
ifaranga rya bahinde 7.56 8.000 12.38 16.96 31.291 43.13 45.00 47.22 48.63 46.59 45.26 44.00 45.19 41.18 43.39 48.33 45.65 46.58 53.37 58.51 62.00 64.1332 68.11
Idorali rya Singapore  —  — 2.179 1.903 1.6158 1.6951 1.7361 1.7930 1.7908 1.7429 1.6902 1.6639 1.5882 1.5065 1.4140 1.4543 1.24586 1.2565 1.2492 1.2511 1.2665 1.3748 1.343

Igipimo cyivunjisha[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Reba kandi[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

  • Amafaranga y'amiganano yo muri Amerika
  • Dedollarisation
  • Gusimbuza amafaranga
  • Gukoresha mpuzamahanga amadolari ya Amerika
  • Urutonde rwabafatanyabikorwa bakomeye muri Amerika
  • Politiki y'ifaranga ya Amerika
  • Petrodollar recycling
  • Politiki ikomeye y'idolari
  • Umubare w'amadolari y'Amerika

Inyandiko[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

Reba[hindura | hindura inkomoko]

  1. ↑ "Nixon Ends Convertibility of US Dollars to Gold and Announces Wage/Price Controls". Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  2. ↑ "How much U.S. currency is in circulation?". Federal Reserve. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
  3. ↑ U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 8. para. 5.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  5. ↑ U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 9. para. 7.
  6. ↑ "Financial Report of the United States Government" (PDF). Department of the Treasury. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 13, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 U.S. Congress. 1792.
  8. ↑ : 503–505. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ↑ : 246–251. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  10. ↑ Langland, Connie (May 27, 2015). "What is a millage rate and how does it affect school funding?". WHYY. PBS and NPR. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Mills Currency". Past & Present. Stamp and Coin Place Blog. September 26, 2018. Archived from the original on May 3, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2019.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "How much is "two bits" and where did the phrase".
  13. ↑ "Decimal Trading Definition and History".
  14. ↑ Mehl, B. Max.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Ask US."
  16. ↑ There's no solid reference on the desirability of liondollars in North America and on 1:1 parity with heavier dollars.
  17. ↑ "Paper Money Glossary". Littleton Coin Company. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  18. ↑ Scutt, David (June 3, 2019). "The Australian dollar is grinding higher as expectations for rate cuts from the US Federal Reserve build". Business Insider. Archived from the original on August 7, 2019. Retrieved August 7, 2019.
  19. ↑ Tappe, Anneken (August 9, 2018). "New Zealand dollar leads G-10 losers as greenback gains strengt". MarketWatch. Retrieved August 7, 2019.
  20. ↑ "Why rupee is once again under pressure". Business Today. April 22, 2019. Retrieved August 7, 2019.
  21. ↑ Cajori, Florian ([1929]1993).
  22. ↑ "U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing – FAQs". www.bep.gov. Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  23. ↑ "USPaperMoney.Info: Series 2017A $1". www.uspapermoney.info.
  24. ↑ "$100 Note | U.S. Currency Education Program".
  25. ↑ "Paragraph 2 of Section 8 of Article 1 of the United States Constitution". Topics.law.cornell.edu. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  26. ↑ "Section 411 of Title 12 of the United States Code". Law.cornell.edu. June 22, 2010. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  27. ↑ "Section 5103 of Title 31 of the United States Code". Law.cornell.edu. August 6, 2010. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  28. ↑ "Section 5115 of Title 31 of the United States Code". Law.cornell.edu. August 6, 2010. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  29. ↑ "Treasury Department Appropriation Bill for 1929: Hearing Before the Subcommittee of House Committee on Appropriations... Seventieth Congress, First Session". 1928.
  30. ↑ Orzano, Michele. "What is a horse blanket note?". Coin World. Coin World. Retrieved November 29, 2021.
  31. ↑ "Federal Reserve Board – Purposes & Functions".
  32. ↑ "Conducting Monetary Policy" (PDF). United States Federal Reserve. Retrieved August 23, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ↑ "Fact Sheets: Currency & Coins". United States Department of the Treasury. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  34. ↑ "Controlling Inflation: A Historical Perspective" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
  35. ↑ "Central Banking—Then and Now". Archived from the original on October 26, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  36. ↑ "U.S. Monetary Policy: The Fed's Goals". Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018.
  37. ↑ "FRB: Foreign Exchange Rates – G.5A; Release Dates". Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Retrieved July 23, 2014.
  38. ↑ "Historical Exchange Rates Currency Converter". TransferMate.com.

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