Ubutaka n'ibibugize
Ubutaka, bakunze kwita isi cyangwa umwanda, ni uruvange rw'ibinyabuzima, imyunyu ngugu, imyuka, amazi, n'ibinyabuzima bifasha ubuzima. Ibisobanuro bimwe bya siyansi bitandukanya umwanda nubutaka muguhagarika ijambo ryambere kubutaka bwimuwe.
Ubutaka bugizwe nicyiciro gikomeye cyimyunyu ngugu nibintu kama (matrix yubutaka), hamwe nicyiciro cyinshi gifata imyuka (ikirere cyubutaka) namazi (igisubizo cyubutaka). [1] [2] Kubera iyo mpamvu, ubutaka ni gahunda y’ibihugu bitatu bigize ibintu bikomeye, amazi, na gaze. Ubutaka ni umusaruro wibintu byinshi: ingaruka z’ikirere, ubutabazi (ubutumburuke, icyerekezo, n’imisozi y’ubutaka), ibinyabuzima, hamwe n’ibikoresho by’ubutaka (amabuye y'agaciro y'umwimerere) bikorana igihe. [4] Ihora itera imbere hifashishijwe inzira nyinshi zumubiri, imiti n’ibinyabuzima, harimo n’ikirere hamwe n’isuri bifitanye isano. Bitewe nuko bigoye kandi bifitanye isano ikomeye imbere, abahanga mu bidukikije bafata ubutaka nkibinyabuzima.
Ubutaka bwinshi bufite ubwinshi bwumye (ubwinshi bwubutaka hitawe kubusa iyo bwumye) hagati ya 1,1 na 1,6 g / cm3, nubwo ubwinshi bwubutaka bwubutaka buri hejuru cyane, mubirometero 2,6 kugeza kuri 2.7 g / cm3. [7] Hafi yubutaka bwumubumbe wisi buruta Pleistocene kandi ntanumwe uruta Cenozoic, [8] nubwo ubutaka bwa fosile bwabitswe kuva kera kugeza muri Archeya.
Pedosifike ihuza na lithosikori, hydrose, ikirere, hamwe na biosiporo. Hamwe na hamwe, umubiri wubutaka bwisi, witwa pedosifera, ufite imirimo ine yingenzi:
nk'uburyo bwo gukura kw'ibimera
nk'uburyo bwo kubika amazi, gutanga no kweza
nkuguhindura ikirere cyisi
nk'ahantu hatuwe n'ibinyabuzima
Iyi mirimo yose, nayo, ihindura ubutaka nibiranga.
Ubumenyi bwubutaka bufite amashami abiri yibanze yubushakashatsi: edaphologiya na pedologiya. Edaphology yiga ingaruka zubutaka ku binyabuzima. Pedologiya yibanda ku miterere, ibisobanuro (morphologie), no gutondekanya ubutaka mu bidukikije. Mu bijyanye n’ubuhanga, ubutaka bushyirwa mubitekerezo byagutse bya regolith, bikubiyemo nibindi bikoresho bitagaragara biri hejuru yigitanda, nkuko ushobora kubisanga ku Kwezi nibindi bintu byo mwijuru. [13]
Inzira
Ubutaka nigice cyingenzi cyibinyabuzima byisi. Urusobe rw'ibinyabuzima ku isi rwibasiwe mu buryo bugaragara n'inzira zikorwa mu butaka, hamwe n'ingaruka ziva ku kugabanuka kwa ozone ndetse n'ubushyuhe bukabije ku isi kugeza kwangiza amashyamba n'imvura. Ku bijyanye n’umuzenguruko wa karubone w’isi, ubutaka bukora nk'ikigega gikomeye cya karubone, [14] kandi birashoboka ko ari kimwe mu bitabangamira ihungabana ry’abantu [15] n’imihindagurikire y’ikirere. Umubumbe ushyushye, byahanuwe ko ubutaka buzongera umwuka wa karuboni mu kirere bitewe n’ibikorwa by’ibinyabuzima byiyongera ku bushyuhe bwinshi, ibitekerezo byiza (amplification). Ubu buhanuzi bwabajijwe hashingiwe ku bumenyi bwa vuba ku bijyanye no guhindura imyuka ya karubone.
Ubutaka bukora nk'ubuhanga bwubuhanga, ubuturo bwibinyabuzima byubutaka, sisitemu yo gutunganya intungamubiri n’imyanda kama, igenzura ubuziranenge bw’amazi, ihindura imiterere y’ikirere, hamwe n’uburyo bwo gukura kw'ibimera, bigatuma itanga serivisi zikomeye kuri serivisi z’ibidukikije . [19] Kubera ko ubutaka bufite ahantu hanini cyane haboneka ahantu hamwe n’aho butuye, burimo igice kinini cy’ibinyabuzima bitandukanye by’isi. Garama y'ubutaka irashobora kuba irimo amamiliyaridi y'ibinyabuzima, y'ibinyabuzima ibihumbi n'ibihumbi, cyane cyane mikorobe kandi ahanini bikaba bitaracukumburwa. [20] Ubutaka bufite ubwinshi bwa prokaryyotike y’ibinyabuzima bigera kuri 108 kuri garama, [22] mu gihe inyanja itagira ibinyabuzima birenga 107 kuri mililitiro (garama) y’amazi yo mu nyanja. Carbone organique ifashwe mu butaka amaherezo isubizwa mu kirere binyuze mu nzira yo guhumeka ikorwa n’ibinyabuzima bya heterotropique, ariko igice kinini kiguma mu butaka mu buryo bw’ibinyabuzima kama; guhinga ubusanzwe byongera umuvuduko wubuhumekero bwubutaka, bigatuma ibinyabuzima bigabanuka. Kubera ko imizi y'ibimera ikenera ogisijeni, aeration ni ikintu cyingenzi kiranga ubutaka. Uku guhumeka kurashobora kugerwaho hifashishijwe imiyoboro yubutaka bwahujwe nubutaka, nabwo bukurura kandi bugafata amazi yimvura bigatuma byoroha kuboneka kubihingwa. Kubera ko ibimera bisaba amazi hafi ahoraho, ariko uturere twinshi tugwa imvura rimwe na rimwe, ubushobozi bwo gufata amazi bwubutaka ningirakamaro kugirango ibimera bibeho.
Ubutaka burashobora gukuraho neza umwanda, [26] byica imiti yindwara, [27] no gutesha agaciro umwanda, uyu mutungo wanyuma witwa kwimenyekanisha bisanzwe. Ubusanzwe, ubutaka bukomeza kwinjiza neti ya ogisijeni na metani kandi bigasohora neti ya karuboni na aside nitide. Ubutaka butanga ibimera bifasha umubiri, umwuka, amazi, ubushyuhe bwubushyuhe, intungamubiri, no kurinda uburozi. Ubutaka butanga intungamubiri ziboneka byoroshye kubimera ninyamaswa muguhindura
Imiterere
Ingingo nyamukuru: Imiterere yubutaka
Andi makuru: Ubukanishi bwubutaka § Itangiriro
Ubutaka bivugwa ko bwakozwe mugihe ibinyabuzima byegeranijwe hamwe na colloide yogejwe hepfo, hasigara ububiko bwibumba, humus, oxyde de fer, karubone, na gypsumu, bikabyara urwego rwihariye rwitwa B horizon. Ubu ni ubusobanuro butandukanye uko bivanze n'umucanga, sili, ibumba na humus bizafasha ibikorwa byibinyabuzima n’ubuhinzi mbere yicyo gihe. Ibi bice byimurwa biva murwego rumwe bijya murundi kubikorwa byamazi ninyamaswa. Nkigisubizo, ibice (horizon) bikora mubutaka bwubutaka. Guhindura no kugenda kwibikoresho mubutaka bitera kwibumbira mubutaka butandukanye. Nyamara, ubusobanuro bwa vuba bwubutaka bwakira ubutaka nta kintu na kimwe kama kama, nka za regoliths zabayeho kuri Mars [48] hamwe nuburyo busa nubutayu bwisi. [49]
Urugero rwiterambere ryubutaka bwatangirana nikirere cyigitanda cya lava gitemba, cyabyara gusa imyunyu ngugu ishingiye kubabyeyi biva mubutaka. Iterambere ryubutaka ryagenda ryihuta cyane uhereye ku rutare rwambaye ubusa rutemba ruheruka mu kirere gishyushye, mu gihe cy'imvura nyinshi kandi kenshi. Mu bihe nk'ibi, ibimera (mu cyiciro cya mbere cya lisansi itunganya azote na cyanobacteria hanyuma epilithic yo hejuru) bigahinduka vuba cyane kuri lava ya basaltike, nubwo hari ibintu bike cyane. [50] Amabuye y'agaciro ya basaltike ubusanzwe ikirere cyihuta cyane, ukurikije urukurikirane rwa Goldich. Ibimera bishyigikiwe nigitare kinini kuko cyuzuyemo amazi afite intungamubiri zitwara imyunyu ngugu yavuye mu rutare. Crevasses nu mifuka, imiterere yubutaka bwamabuye, byafataga ibikoresho byiza kandi bikabika imizi yibiti. Imizi yibihingwa ikura ifitanye isano nubutaka bwimyororokere ya mycorrhizal [52] ifasha mukumena lava yamenetse, kandi hakoreshejwe ubwo buryo nibintu kama nubutaka bwiza bwegeranya nigihe. Ibyiciro byambere byiterambere ryubutaka byasobanuwe kubirunga, [53] inselbergs, [54] na glacial moraines.
Uburyo imiterere yubutaka igenda iterwa byibura nibintu bitanu bya kera bifitanye isano nihindagurika ryubutaka: ibikoresho byababyeyi, ikirere, imiterere y’imiterere (ubutabazi), ibinyabuzima, nigihe. [56] Iyo byerekeranye nikirere, ubutabazi, ibinyabuzima, ibikoresho byababyeyi, nigihe, bigize incamake CROPT.
IMITERERE Y' UBUTAKA
Ingingo nyamukuru: Imiterere y' ubuutaka
Kumurongo wamasomo, reba Ubutaka bwa fiziki cyangwa uko buteye.
Imiterere yubutaka, kugirango hagabanuke akamaro ka serivisi yibidukikije nkumusaruro wibihingwa, ni imiterere, imiterere, ubwinshi bwinshi, ubwinshi, guhoraho, ubushyuhe, ibara no kurwanya. [58] Imiterere y'ubutaka igenwa nuburinganire bugereranije bwubwoko butatu bwubutaka bwubutaka, bwitwa ubutaka butandukanya: umucanga, sili, nibumba. Ku gipimo kinini gikurikiraho, imiterere yubutaka bwitwa peds cyangwa ubusanzwe igiteranyo cyubutaka kiremwa nubutaka butandukana mugihe okiside yicyuma, karubone, ibumba, silika na humus, uduce twikoti kandi bigatuma twizirika mubikorwa binini kandi bihamye. ] Ubwinshi bwubutaka, iyo bugenwe mubihe bisanzwe byubushuhe, ni ikigereranyo cyo guhuza ubutaka. Ubutaka bwubutaka bugizwe nigice cyubusa bwubutaka bwubutaka kandi butwarwa na gaze cyangwa amazi. Guhuza ubutaka nubushobozi bwibikoresho byubutaka bifatanyiriza hamwe. Ubushyuhe bwubutaka namabara birisobanura. Kurwanya bivuga kurwanya imiyoboro y'amashanyarazi kandi bigira ingaruka ku gipimo cyo kwangirika kw'ibyuma na beto bishyingurwa mu butaka. Iyi miterere iratandukanye bitewe nuburebure bwimiterere yubutaka, ni ukuvuga binyuze mubutaka. Inyinshi muri iyo mitungo igena ihindagurika ry'ubutaka n'ubushobozi bw'amazi yo kwinjira no gufatwa mu butaka.
Ubutaka
Ingingo nyamukuru: Ubutaka
Amazi yo mubutaka arashobora gupimwa nkubunini cyangwa uburemere. Ubushuhe bwubutaka, murwego rwo kugabanya ibirimo amazi, ni kwiyuzuzamo, ubushobozi bwumurima, aho uhindukira, umwuka wumuyaga, hamwe nitanura ryumye. Ubushobozi bwumurima busobanura ubutaka butose bwumwanya mugihe amazi arimo agera kuburinganire hamwe nuburemere. Kuvomera ubutaka hejuru yubushobozi bwumurima bishobora gutakaza igihombo. Ingingo ya Wilting isobanura imipaka yumye kubihingwa bikura.
Ubushobozi bwamazi aboneka nubunini bwamazi afashe mubutaka bwubutaka buboneka kubimera. Mugihe amazi agabanutse, ibimera bigomba gukora kugirango birusheho kongera imbaraga zo gufatira hamwe no gukuramo amazi. Gahunda yo kuhira irinda guhangayikishwa no kuzuza amazi yabuze mbere yo guhangayika. [63]
Igikorwa cya capillary gifite inshingano zo kwimura amazi yubutaka ava mu turere dutose twubutaka akajya ahantu humye. Ibishushanyo mbonera (urugero, ibitanda byo kuryamaho, ibiterwa byuhira-byuhira) bishingiye kuri capillarity kugirango itange amazi kumizi. Igikorwa cya capillary gishobora kuvamo imyunyu yumunyu mwinshi, bigatera kwangirika kwubutaka binyuze mumyunyu.